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Solution Exchange for the Food & Nutrition Security Community
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Consolidated Reply
Query: Use of Human Excreta for Agriculture - Experiences
Compiled by Gopi N. Ghosh and Pankaj Kumar S., Resource Persons and T. N. Anuradha and Ramya Gopalan, Research Associates
Issue Date: 30 September 2007
From Nivedita Varshneya, German Agro Action/Deutsche Welthungerhilfe (DWHH/GAA), New Delhi
Posted 11 September 2007
Dear All,
Following a recent trip to Sweden, I want to share an interesting insight on experiments on the use of human faeces by the Swedish farmers. The Swedish farmers (besides those in other Nordic countries) have experimented with using urine as a liquid manure and dry matter from faeces as a soil conditioner. The urine is stored in sealed vessels for some months and then ploughed in a way as to avoid nitrogen losses. Yields from experimental plots fertilized with human urine were the same as yields from plots fertilized with an equal amount of nitrogen in mineral fertilizers. At the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, in a long term (started in 1956), small plot field experiment, the best soil nitrogen turnover was from sewage sludge, as we could well see.
We in India have experimented with this in some ways (Ecosan, biogas etc), but have too many prejudices and social taboos to adopt it on a wider scale. One person produces annually approximately 500 liters of urine, which contains 98% of the Nitrogen, 65% of the Phosphorus and 80% of the Potassium excreted by a human being. Given Wolgast’s estimation that one person’s faeces is enough to grow grain for his/her annual grain consumption, is it possible that with our population of one billion, we can move towards producing our food organically if we could utilize this resource along with other inputs?
In this context, I would like members to share their experiences on:
· Research experiments in India on the efficacy and environmental impact of the use of human excreta in agriculture, particularly for edible plants and the compatibility of such input use with organic standards
· Indigenous composting or other technologies that have been successfully adapted towards this objective
· Use of sewage sludge in agriculture, if permitted and standards and guidelines for these, if any
· Response of farmers and consumers for produce grown from this waste
The discussion outcomes would help in integrating this concept and applying it in field situations.
Responses were received, with thanks, from
1. B. L. Kaul, Society for Popularization of Science, Jammu (Response 1; Response 2)
2. S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club and Arghyam Trust, Bangalore (Response 1; Response 2)
3. Dinesh Shukla, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
4. Ramesha Gowda, Karnataka State Pollution Control Board, Bangalore
5. T. P. Trivedi, Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi
6. Umesh Babu, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore
7. Murali Kochukrishnan, Action for Food Production (AFPRO), Bhubaneswar
8. Sudhirendar Sharma, The Ecological Foundation, New Delhi
9. Vijay Sardana, Centre for International Trade in Agriculture and Agro-Based Industries (CITA), New Delhi (Response 1; Response 2)
10. Ramney Koul, Independent Consultant, New Delhi (Response 1; Response 2)
11. Bashu Babu Aryal, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Nepal
12. C. P. A. Iyer, Independent Consultant, Bangalore
13. R. Srikanth, WaterAid, New Delhi
14. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, New Delhi
15. Ravi Singh, Margshree Farms, Agra
16. Sandeep Parkhi, Saksham Foundation, Pune
17. J. David Foster, Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad
18. Madhab Nayak, Fountain of Development Research and Action, New Delhi
19. K. P. Reddy, Byrraju Foundation, Hyderabad
20. Jyotsna Bapat, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi
21. Arunabha Majumder, All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIHPH), Kolkata
22. S. C. Prasad, Independent Consultant, Ranchi
23. Mahtab S. Bamji, Dangoria Charitable Trust, Hyderabad
24. Uday Bhawalkar, Bhawalkar Vermitech Private Limited, Pune
25. Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Colombo, Sri Lanka
26. G. Misra, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Port Blair (Response 1; Response 2)
27. Sanna Leena Rautanen, World Bank, Washington, USA
28. V. D. Sharma, Department of Business Economics, Veer Bahadhur Singh Purvanchal University, Jaunpur
29. Jyoti Parikh, Integrated Research and Action for Development (IRADe), New Delhi
30. K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
31. Subodh Kumar, Udyog Bharati, Ghaziabad
32. P. K. Thampan, Peekay Tree Crops Development Foundation, Kochi
33. Bhawna Vajpai, Spatial Decisions, New Delhi
34. Sajan Venniyoor, UNESCO, New Delhi
35. P. K. Jha, Sulabh International Academy of Environmental Sanitation, Enclave, New Delhi
36. Santhanam R, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals, New Delhi
37. Ranjan Mohapatra, Vision Foundation for Development Management, New Delhi
Further contributions are welcome!
All living beings on this planet produce waste in some form or the other. As per the principle of five kingdoms of nature, waste of one kingdom can become a resource for another, providing energy and other nutritional needs. Responding to the query on the possibility of using human waste (excreta) as a nutrient recycling option for agriculture, members shared various traditional and current practices as well as emerging technologies, outlined risks and precautions involved in handling of such waste, and suggested mechanisms for an integrated operational approach to its use.
Respondents highlighted the fact that open defecation is an ancient practice in most parts of rural and peri-urban India, usually done on or near agricultural fields. The excreta would undergo natural decomposition over a period and people believed it benefited crop production.
Members shared examples of customary practices, which have helped farmers achieve good crop yields, like in Jammu and Kashmir, where human excreta has been used as manure for growing vegetables for centuries. Another example highlighted was a case of farmers preferring manure from septic tanks and sewage treatment plants over other types of manure in Karnataka and in Shimoga district, members mentioned how a progressive farmer uses waste generated by livestock and people to produce biogas and manure for plants. In Agra, sludge from the municipality used to be in great demand by farmers; however, recent urbanization and changes in farming practices have reduced interest. Another interesting approach was from Nagarsuda village in Karnataka where a school has adapted ecosan methods and is now supplying the urine and sludge as manure to farmers. In another ecosan effort, GTZ has provided a toilet facility for a slum in Bangalore that is serving the community with clean sanitation services and farmers with organic manure from the collected excreta. Using human extra for agriculture was also traditionally practiced in other countries, discussants noted, such as in China.
Discussing various types of toilets, respondents listed innovations in septic tank systems designed to hygienically collect human liquid and solid waste. They explained the normal pan and trap method used in toilets cannot separate urine and night soil, but systems that separate urine and excreta at the source, allow quicker conversion to compost. This dry toilet approach is the type Finnish farmers use. Another method mentioned is the traditional toilet used in Ladakh, which has two levels and separate outlets for the waste. This allows communities to dilute the urine with water and compost the excreta for use in gardens. A third method shared was the two-pit pour flush latrine that allows excreta and urine to be stored in pits, for later use as manure. In 1950, the government of Kerala tried to encourage the practice of using human excreta as manure by providing appropriate defecation systems to facilitate the composting of human waste and urine separately; however, the system died out with the introduction of chemical fertilizers. Members also mentioned ban of Goan pig toilets as it was not ecological and caused parasite infection when excreta was directly used in agricultural fields.
Elaborating on the possible risks of using and handling human excreta respondents stressed such manure needs the utmost care and diligence when processing for agriculture production purposes. Human excreta contain various pathogenic bacteria and helmenthic cysts and are unsafe unless sanitized. It is necessary for complete conversion into “good compost” before application to avoid deleterious effects; the risks of spreading diseases due to poor sanitation is a potential problem, more than issues with food security. Another concern is the possibility of heavy metal contamination like nickel, lead, and cadmium of the vegetables produced from the human excreta compost. Members also cautioned the risk of markets following EUREPGAP standards will not accept such products and that some consumers, especially in the United States, will believe diseases are transmitted through these type of agricultural products.
Outlining the safety precautions, discussants stressed that only composted solid waste and diluted urine stored for an appropriate period, is safe to apply to crops. The type of soil chemistry also requires consideration before applying composted human excreta and urine as nutrition requirement of a soil is dependant on its type. During processing of food items, safety measures are necessary to avoid the associated risk of round worms and pinworms. Finally, as a precautionary measure, members advised not using human excreta manure to grow vegetables usually consumed raw, like carrots and lettuces.
Respondents also shared various research studies and experiments conducted to determine the level of safety when using human excreta and urine for food production. For example, the Tamilnadu Agricultural University examined how the application of urine and composted faeces to rice, maize and bananas affected production. The results suggested that urine correctly applied had the same ability to ensure production as artificial fertilizers, if farmers take the necessary precautions to avoid any excessive buildup of salts.
On the attitudinal response of farmers and consumers, discussants stressed that since it is not a new concept, farmers’ response has been good, but consumers’ reaction is generally negative due to lack of awareness regarding the effectiveness and safety of the method.
In view of various uses, associated risks and psychological barriers, members suggested several mechanisms towards institutionalizing the concept and making it more environmentally and human friendly.
· Design and operate well-managed systems with standard maintenance procedures for proper processing of large quantity of excreta along with evaluation of costs and ensuring safety through appropriate risk management of the end product; possibly through Public-Private Partnerships
· Integrate markets and create demand for bio-manure and biogas at a national level to support the processing of human and cattle waste into manure and gas
· Have research institutions serve as single point contact and come up with scientific data, papers or studies to substantiate that the output of such farms are free from pathogens, including comprehensive recommendations on safety precautions (like not to apply such manure to tubers or ground based vegetables)
· Develop appropriate standards and guidelines with regulatory standards for generating data on risks, safety parameters, and product labels
· Educate and reach out to the masses through media outlets, community relations, and health agencies with scientific facts about this approach
· Use human waste for landscaping and greening parks/gardens and for reclamation of degraded lands
· Generate awareness and knowledge sharing on various ecosan initiatives across the globe
In country like India, where large tracks of land have low crop productivity due to limited soil fertility, using human excreta as a resource for agriculture seems to be a viable option - provided appropriate sanitary procedures, scientific processing, and standardized safety measures adopted to avoid the potential health and environmental risks.
National
Human Excreta Aiding Good Vegetable Yield, Ladakh (from B. L. Kaul, Society for Popularization of Science, Jammu, response 1)
Use of human excreta for manure is common in this part of the country. Due to non-existence of the "water closet" concept for defecation, people use dry toilets. While urine drains out the excreta is removed every morning by scavengers, who later transport the waste to vegetable gardens. The excreta is then composted before being used as manure. The yields from these vegetable gardens has been excellent, providing the farmers a good profit.
Traditional Toilet Designs Aid Reuse of Solid and Liquid Human Waste , Leh (from Jyotsna Bapat, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi)
Traditionally designed toilets in this region have two outlets for separating liquid and solid waste. The liquid waste is mixed with water and discharged into agricultural fields. The solid waste is covered with sand after every use, which is left for a while in a ditch, and later is collected as manure for agricultural purposes. Communities work together to ensure appropriate sanitation is maintained in this difficult area, which at the same time is producing good manure for better crop yield.
Tamil Nadu
Rice Seeds Treated with Cow's Urine, Coimbatore (from S. Vishwanath, Rainwater and Arghyam Trust, Bangalore, response 1)
In an experiment conducted by the Tamilnadu Agricultural University, rice seed varieties were treated with cow's urine. Followed by proper scientific and organic treatments at the nursery the young seedlings were transferred to the main field that was pre-treated with green leaf manure and farmyard manure. The crop grew well with no incidence of any major pests or diseases. Read more
Urban Elites Accept Sewage Recycling in their Homes, Chennai (from T. N. Anuradha, Research Associate)
In a 133-apartment complex in Medavakkam, over 40,000 litres of wastewater (toilet and bathroom let-offs) are recycled everyday. The wastewater undergoes an appropriate purification processes before it is supplied again in homes for flushing toilets and gardening. Such systems have proven useful to communities without a sewer network and sufficient water supply. Read more
Karnataka
Manure from Human Exrceta in Demand, Mysore (from Ramesha Gowda, Karnataka State Pollution Control Board, Bangalore)
"Sewage farming" is popular in this part of the country. Farmers are using the sewage water for paddy cultivation. Using this approach, farmers have had good yields and now prefer to pay more for the manure from septic tanks and sewage treatment plants than purchase organic manure.
School Provides Manure to Farmers, Nagarsuda village (from Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, New Delhi)
The ecosan toilet constructed in Swami Vivekananda Kannada HPS Chikpet School provides 300 litres of urine every month to farmers who use it their fields as fertiliser. This has helped farmers by providing them a cheaper source of fertliliser and also promotes the "eco-sanitation concept" in the construction of household toilets. Encouraged the approach, 10 eco-sanitation based households toilets have now been constructed in the village. Read more
Ecosan for Multi-Services, Bangalore (from Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Colombo, Sri Lanka)
As a part of its Ecosan programme, GTZ has provided a toilet block in a slum community. The toilets serve multipurposes, providing clean sanitation services at low cost to the slum inhabitants and a way for farmers to access organic manure. Provision has been made in these blocks for the collection of faeces and urine, which are the provided to farmers. Read more
No Waste Goes Waste, Shimoga District (from Umesh Babu, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore)
An organic farmer is using all the organic waste (plant, human or animal) generated on his farm to nurture his agricultural crops. The farm has adopted various methods to convert the waste to manure by using a biogas plant and sludge. Liquid waste is used on plants through a sprinkler method. This is not only helping reduced the use of chemical fertilisers, but also in the appropriate management of wastes. Read more
Kerala
Technology to Encourage for Composting of Human Waste (from P. K. Thampan, Peekay Tree Crops Development Foundation, Kochi)
In 1950, households were provided with technologies for composting of human urine and night soil to produce manure. This was done as a part of a community project carried out by agricultural extension workers. Two tons of valuable urine compost could be prepared in one year. Many households used the manure in their kitchen gardens, however with the introduction of chemical fertilizers the practice slowly waned.
Uttar Pradesh
Sewerage Sludge for Sale, Agra (from Ravi Singh, Margshree Farms, Agra)
In the Agra municipality, sewerage sludge was in great demand among farmers, who would even buy sludge on the black market. They used for their summer squash crop - tinda, because it gave very good yields. However, growing urbanization has led to glass, stone and other material being mixed with the sludge, which along with the introduction of hybrid plant varieties and increased use fertilizers has resulted in a decreased demand for sludge by farmers.
International
Finland
Dry Toilets Serving Multipurposes (from Bashu Babu Aryal, Internatiional Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD), Nepal)
Many families are changing from water to dry toilets. One of the prime reasons is decreasing water resources and adaption of organic agricultural practices. The dry toilet modle used allows for urine separation and has a composting chamber right under the toilet seat. The urine is diluted with grey water and utilized as fertilizer in family gardens. Farmers are also extensively using this manure with great satisfaction. Read more
China
Ancient Evidence of Use of Human Excreta for Agriculture (from R. Srikanth, WaterAid, New Delhi)
Human excreta have been used as fertilizer for crops since the Shang Dynasty (about three thousand years ago). The method for utilizing human excreta, included basal fertilization, top application, and seed coating. Even human waste generated in the cities and towns were used by farmers and transported to rural areas. But by the 1980s this ancient tradition was overpowered by the introduction of chemical fertilisers. Read more
Improvements in the Use of Human Excreta in Chinese Agriculture (from Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate)
Under the influence of China’s long tradition, human excreta is always used as a crop fertilizer by the application of direct usage for crops, compost, and direct usage as feed for fish. Difficulties faced in rural areas absorbing the increasing human waste generated in cities and towns and extension of transportation distances. However, improvements in toilet structure, transportation method, treatment method and application approach helped tackle the issues. Read more.
Sweden
Reuse of Urine and Sludge, Hulta (from T. N. Anuradha, Research Associate)
Borje Johansson a dairy farmer who also produces fodder for cows and cultivates grain, collects urine from local villages and uses it as a fertiliser for grain production. The urine helps to improve the nutrient balance on the farm. The sludge collected in septic tanks is composted with straw. The compost is used in agriculture. Many of villagers are now buying food that is produced using their own excreta as fertilisers. Read more
Vietnam
Legislation on Excreta and its Use in Agriculture (from Ramya Gopalan,
Research Associate)
Until recently the definition of "hygienic safe human excreta" was based on composting time only, and the Ministries of Health and Agriculture and Rural Development, applied different standards. The lack of common standards hindered promotion of safe practices. However, following recent revisions to the guidelines both ministries now recommend a composting time of six months for producing hygienic safe excreta that can be used as fertilizer. Read more
Recommended Documentation
From Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Colombo, Sri Lanka
Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastwater, Excreta and Greywater, Volume 4
Guidelines; World Health Organization; 2006
Available at http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuweg4/en/index.html
Explains requirements to promote the safe use of excreta and greywater in agriculture, including minimum procedures and specific health-based targets
Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production
Article; EcoSanRes; Stockholm Environment Institute; Stockholm, Sweden; April 2005
Available at http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/Fact_sheets/ESR6lowres.pdf (PDF Size: 255 KB)
Provides guidelines for use of urine and faeces in agriculture, requires customisation to local conditions
Ecological Sanitation Closes the Loop between Sanitation and Agriculture
Article; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development; German Development Cooperation (GTZ)
Available at http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/wasser/8524.htm
Provides activity details of ecosan programme of GTZ, noting the importance of such programmes working to remove misconceptions about human excreta being simply "wastes"
Toilets That Make Compost
Book; by Peter Morgan; EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environment Institute; 2007
Available at http://www.ecosanres.org/toilets_that_make_compost.htm
Provides practical information for the rural, peri-urban and urban populace of Africa to build and practice the art of recycling nutrients from their excreta for better crops
Improving the Rural-Urban Nutrient Cycle Through Peri-Urban Agriculture
Article; International Water Management Institute; 28 Febrauary 2007
Available at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/africa/West/projects/Nutrient%20cycle%20-%20Re-use%20options.htm
Outlines how a project is analyzing the viability of composting municipal organic waste, co-composting of solid waste with night soil, and direct night soil application
An Assessment of Community Attitude on Human Excreta Use and Products Produced from Human Excreta Plots
Report; by Edward Guzha and Sakios Muduma; Mvuramanzi Trust; Marlbrough
Available at http://www2.gtz.de/ecosan/download/en-Guzha-assessmentonmaizeproduktion-2005.pdf (PDF Size: 126 KB)
Study assesses community attitudes on using human excreta for agriculture and on consumption of food products produced from human excreta plots
The Utilization of Human Excreta in Chinese Agriculture (from R Srikanth, WaterAid, New Delhi)
Article; by Luo Shiming; South China Agricultural University; Internet Dialogue on Ecological Sanitation ; China; November-December 2001
Available at http://www.ias.unu.edu/proceedings/icibs/ecosan/luo-02.html
Informs about the long time use of human excreta by the Chinese and details reasons for the diminishing practice and advises possible strategies for revival of the practice
From Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, New Delhi
Should Ecological Sanitation Carry a Health Warning?
Article; by Rebecca Scott ; Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC); WELLS; UK
Available at
Explains that ecological latrines reduce the pathogen level in faeces to safe levels, with sufficient storage times and proper management of the latrines
Contaminated Irrigation Water and Food Safety for the Urban and Peri-Urban Poor
Briefing Paper; by Fiona Marshall et. al; University of Sussex; Toxics Link; 18 July 2007
Available at http://toxicslink.org/dn.php?section=1&id=176&atn=0 (PDF Size: 6 MB)
Looks into the risks of heavy metal contamination with the use of sewage water for agricultural purposes
Eco-Sanitation in School- New Opportunities for Farmers
Article; by Kumar Alok; United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
Available at
http://www.wesnetindia.org/fileadmin/attachments/Resources_on_Ecosan/case%20study%20on%20school%20eco-san.doc (Document Size: 2 MB)
Provides the experience of using eco-sanitation based toilets in one of the schools of Nagarsuda village where farmers use the human urine and excreta as fertilisers for their fields
Ecosan – Recycling-Oriented Wastewater Management and Sanitation Systems (from Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Colombo, Sri Lanka and Sanna Leena Rautanen, World Bank, Washington, USA)
Article; German Development Cooperation (GTZ); Water and Sanitation Section; Eschborn, Germany; December 2005
Available at http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/en-ecosan-topicsheet-2005.pdf (PDF Size: 1 MB)
Aims to recognise ecological sanitation concepts internationally as an innovative approach in management and reuse of human wastes for improved water sustainability
Organic Farming: Traditional Rice Varieties Ideal (from S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club and Arghyam Trust, Bangalore, response 1)
Article; The Hindu; 4 July 2004
Available at http://www.hindu.com/seta/2004/07/08/stories/2004070800431500.htm
Reports good yield and no incidences of pest attack on newly tried rice seeds varieties treated with cow urine and further nurtured with organic manure
Urine Diverting Toilets in Climates with Cold Winters (from Bashu Babu Aryal, International Fund for Agrcultural Development (IFAD), Nepal))
Report; by Anna Richert Stintzing et. al; VERNA Ecology Inc.; Women in Europe for a Common Future; The Netherlands; July 2007
Available at http://www.wecf.de/cms/download/2007/WP-26_web-07.pdf (PDF Size: 2.3 MB)
Provides technical considerations for reuse of nutrients from human excreta through specially designed toilets, provides practical examples of such reuse in practice
From Sanna Leena Rautanen, World Bank, Washington, USA
In Search for Drivers for Dry Sanitation
Report; by Sanna Leena Rautanen and Eva Liisa Viskari; Tampere University of Technology; Land Use and Water Resources Research; Tampere, Finland; 2006
Available at http://www.luwrr.com/uploads/paper06-04.pdf (PDF 780 KB)
Summarises findings of International Dry Toilet Conference where dry toilet based urine diversion was recommended, as nutrients from urine could be used for agriculture purpose
Ecological Sanitation
Book; by Uno Winblad and Mayling Simpson-Hebert; Stockholm Environment Institute; Sweden; 2004
Available at http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/Ecological_Sanitation_2004.pdf (PDF Size: 1.2 MB)
Presents findings of research on ecological sanitation to promote conservation of water to prevent water pollution and to recycle the nutrients from human excreta
A Guide to the Development of On-Site Sanitation
Guide Book; World Health Organization;1992
Available at http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/onsitesan/ch04.htm
Looks into technical factors affecting excrete disposal and provides design examples for compost toilets, so manure from these can be used for agriculture
What We Do in Vietnam (from Arunabha Majumder, All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIHPH), Kolkatta)
Article; Nippon International Cooperation for Community Development (NICCO; Vietnam
Available at http://www.kyoto-nicco.org/vietnam_e.htm
Project includes construction of composting toilets to enable use of human waste into resources to be used in farms
From Sajan Venniyoor, UNESCO, New Delhi
The Sad, but Increasing Demise, of the Goan Pig Toilets
Article; The India Travel Forum; 2002
Available at http://www.indiamike.com/india/goa-f23/the-sad-but-increasing-demise-of-the-goan-pig-toilets-t1127/
Views on the Goan pig toilet, which is almost extinct had a opening allowing pigs to consume human excreta, collected waste coul be used for agriculture
Japan's Response to Health and Medical Care Challenges
Report, Page 134; Institute for International Cooperation, JICA; 2000
Available at http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/study/topical/okinawa/pdf/okinawa.pdf (PDF, Size: 780 KB)
Reports after ban of "pig toilets" the human excreta was transported for us as fertilizer in farming areas, but due to direct use of excreta caused high rate of parasite infection
Lesser Humans
Film; by Stalin K.; Drishti Media Collective; Navsarjan Trust; Ahmedabad; 1997; Film available on request from Drishti – Media, Arts & Human Rights, 103 Anand Hari Tower, Sandesh Press Road, Bodakdev, Ahmedabad 380054; Tel: 91-79-26851235; drishtiad1@gmail.com
Available at http://www.oneworld.cz/oneworld/2000/english/films/asia/lesserh.htm
Investigates continuance of inhuman practice of manually disposing human excreta, calls for appropriate sanitary practices and technology if human excreta to be used as manure
From T. N. Anuradha, Research Associate
Council Gives Consent for Underground Drainage System
Article; The Hindu; 3 January 2007
Available at http://www.hindu.com/2006/01/03/stories/2006010301690300.htm
Initiative by Municipal Corporation of Erode to treat the septic tank wastewater to be used for agricultural purposes and sediments converted to manure to be sold to farmers
Article; by S. Shanker; The Hindu; Chennai; 23 April 2005
Available at http://www.hindu.com/pp/2005/04/23/stories/2005042300310100.htm
Reports that over 40,000 litres of toilet and bathroom let-offs recycled and supplied for flushing of toilets in the apartments and also used for gardening
Pathogens in Human Excreta
Article; SulabhENVIS Centre
Available at http://www.sulabhenvis.in/pages/database_detail.asp?id=46
Informs about the various pathogens in human excreta and their deleterious health effects; and suggests various precautions to use before using human excreta for agriculture
Human Excreta for Plant Production
Review Article; by Helvi Heinonen-Tanski a and Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma; Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kuopio; Finland; 22 October 2003
Available at http://www.irc.nl/content/download/8929/135439/file/HeinonenWijk_Human_Excreta_.pdf (PDF Size: 188 KB)
Reports human urine and composted human faeces fortified with wood ash and garden waste could meet potassium and phosphorus needs of plants and improve soil structure.
From Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate
An Assessment of Community Attitude on Human Excreta Use and Products produced from Human Excreta Plots
Paper; by Edward Guzha and Sakios Muduma; German Development Cooperation (GTZ); Marlbrough
Available at http://www2.gtz.de/ecosan/download/en-Guzha-assessmentonmaizeproduktion-2005.pdf (PDF Size: 125 KB)
Reveals community attitude on using human excreta is positive with 76.7% fine to eat produce from ecosan and 78.1% willing to use human excreta as a crop nutrient
WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture
Review Paper; by S. A. Petterson and N. J. Ashbolt; Microbial Risk Assessment Section; World Health Organization (WHO)
Available at http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/mrareview.pdf (PDF Size: 253 KB)
Summarises available data, use of Microbial Risk Assessment and example outcomes to aid in setting health targets and the use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture
Human Excreta Use in Agriculture in Vietnam - A Study from the Field to the Latrine
Project Brief; Institute of Public Health; University of Copenhagen
Available at http://pubhealth.ku.dk/ais_en/research_areas/water_sanitation/research_projects/
Identifies legislation and sanitation strategies for the use of human excreta in agriculture, their agreement with farmers needs and practices assessed and issue of hygienic quality
Guidelines on Agricultural Reuse of Human Excreta
Article; EcoSanRes; Stockholm Environment Institute; September 2007
Available at http://www.ecosanres.org/agricultural_reuse_of_human_excreta.htm
Aims at educating ecological sanitation users about handling the urine and faeces in a safe and beneficial manner, thus promoting the use of human excreta in agriculture
Successful Sanitation Promotion Must Recognize the Use of Latrine Wastes in Agriculture — The Example of Vietnam
Perspectives Paper; by Peter Kjær Jensen et al.; Bulletin of the World Health Organization; Vol. 83 No. 11; November 2005
Available at Link
Comments on excreta reuse and health, implementation problems, legislation on excreta and its use in agriculture and future research needs all set in the East Asian context
Possibilities for Sustainable Nutrient Recycling by Faecal Separation Combined with Urine Diversion
Doctoral Thesis; by Bjorn Vinneras; Department of Agricultural Engineering; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; Uppsala; 2002
Available at http://diss-epsilon.slu.se/archive/00000332/01/Agraria_353.pdf (PDF Size: 3.65 MB)
Discusses how this Separation Method seems to be an interesting way to decrease the resource usage and possibly improve the hygienic standard of wastewater systems.
Use of Human Excreta from Urine-Diversion Toilets in Food Gardens: Agronomic and Health Aspects
Report; No 1439/3/06; Water Research Commission; South Africa; June 2006
Available at http://www.fwr.org/wrcsa/1439306.htm
Establishes current “state of the art” in ecological sanitation and explores appropriate practices for faeces collection, disposal and use in agriculture and food gardens
Human Faeces as a Resource in Agriculture
Paper; by Sirkka Malkki; TTS-Institute; Rajamäki
Available at http://orgprints.org/8477/01/njf4.pdf (PDF Size: 2.55 MB)
Details how nutrients in faeces should be used in plant production, instead of ending up
in wastewater treatment plants
Recommended Contacts and Experts
Dr. Prafulla Chandra, Shimoga District, Karnataka (from Umesh Babu, Institute of Social and Economic Change, Bangalore)
Krishi Sampada, Lakshmipura, Hosahalli Post, Shimoga District, Karnataka; Tel: 91-8182-272730; http://www.shimoga.nic.in/prafu.htm
Conducted extensive work in recycling of organic waste like human excreta and using for agricultural purposes
Valmiki Sreenivasa Ayyangarya, Arunachal Pradesh (from Santhanam R, Indian Society for Agribusiness Professionals, New Delhi)
Has conducted extensive experiments on use of cow dung and other biomass as manure for tea plantations and also recommends use of human excreta after proper research
Recommended Organizations and Programmes
Sulabh International Social Service Organisation, New Delhi (from T. P. Trivedi, ICAR, New Delhi and G Misra, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Port Blair and P K Jha )
Sulabh Gram, Mahavir Enclave, Palam Dabri Marg, 110045 New Delhi; Tel: 91-11-25032617/1518; Fax: 91-11-25034014/6122; sulabh1@nde.vsnl.net.in; http://www.sulabhinternational.org/pg06.htm; Contact Dr. Bindheshwar Pathak; President
Research and Development Unit has developed many technologies for conversion of human excreta to biogas and manure
Fountain of Development Research and Action (FODRA), New Delhi (from Madhab Nayak)
302, Jai Apartments, Sector-9 Rohini, 110085 New Delhi; Tel: 91-11- 27553976; Fax: 91-11- 27566715; fodra@vsnl.com; http://www.fodra.org/finn.asp?getfl=inov4
Organisation engaged in the promotion and use of recycled urine and human faeces for agriculture as a part of their ecosan activities
From Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Colombo, Sri Lanka
Ecosan Services Foundation (ESF), Pune
"Vishwa Chandra", 1002/42 Rajenda Nagar, Maharashtra 411030; Tel: 91-20-64000736; Fax: 91-20-24530061 ecosanindia@gmail.com; http://www.ecosanservices.org/page.php?id=1
Foundation's objective is to promote "ecosan" technology as a method to produce hygienically safe and useful resources from human wastes
Eco-Solutions, Trivandrum
'Pulari', 49 Asan Nagar, Vallakadavu, Kerala 695008; Tel: 91-471-2502622; paul@eco-solutions.org; http://www.eco-solutions.org/contactus.html
Promotes ecological toilets and wastewater recycling systems among communities, government and non-government organisations for reuse of human waste
Mythri Sarva Seva Samithi, Bangalore
1300 D, 1st Cross, 1st Main, HAL 3rd Stage, New Thippasandra, Karnataka 560075; Tel: 91-80-25273941; Fax: 91-80-25255543; contact@ecosanindia.org; http://www.ecosanindia.org/ea.html; Contact: Mr. Anselm Rosario; Executive Director
Working towards creating awareness for recycling of human waste as well as developing an adequate toilet design for separating urine and faeces for agricultural use
WASTE Advisers on Urban Environment and Development, Netherlands
Nieuwehaven 201, 2801 CW Gouda Netherlands; Tel: 31--182-522625; Fax: 31-182-550313; office@waste.nl; http://www.waste.nl/
WASTE focuses on solid and liquid waste management and resource recovery through low-cost sanitation programmes
Global Dry Toilet Association, Finland (from Sanna Leena Rautanen, World Bank, Washington, USA)
Kauppakatu 11 C 2 krs, 33200 Tampere Finland; Tel: 358-50-3012539; secretary@drytoilet.org http://www.drytoilet.org/
Promotes the use of dry toilets to make it an essential part of sustainable development, to control the management of toilet waste to use it for agriculture
Recommended Portals and Information Bases
WES-Net India, New Delhi (from Ramesh Sakthivel)
http://www.wesnetindia.org/index.php?id=120; Contact Mr. Ramesh Sakthivel; National Coordiantor; Tel: 91-11-46558484/90; desk@wesnetindia.org
Portal provides information on ecosan and other related sustainable sanitation concepts which are important in context of using human excreta for agriculture
EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm (from Constanze Windberg, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Colombo and Sanna Leena Rautanen, World Bank, Washington)
http://www.ecosanres.org/; Tel: 46-8-6747070; arno.rosemarin@sei.se
Portal contains exhaustive information on various sanitation programmes and activities promoting recycling of human waste to use for agriculture and other purposes
Turning Pollution into Resources, Bhawalkar Ecological Research Institute, Pune (from Uday Bhawalkar)
http://www.biosanitizer.com/; Tel: 91-20-24226916; bvpl@vsnl.com
A biocatalyst used for treatment of sewage wastewater without production of any sludge, which can be used as resource for agriculture and natural fertiliser
Related Consolidated Replies
Sanitation Schemes and Biogas Digesters, from B. K. Sharma, Gwalior Children’s Hospital, Madhya Pradesh (Comparative Experiences; Advice). Water Community. Issued 28 December 2005
Available at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr-public/cr-se-wes-28120501-public.pdf (PDF Size: 143 KB)
Provides experiences on community-based sanitation schemes using biogas digesters, and information on relevant technologies
Treatment of Wastewater for Reuse, from K. A. S. Mani, APFAMGS, Hyderabad, (Experiences). Water Community. Issued 14 March 2006
Available at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr-public/cr-se-wes-14030601-public.pdf (PDF Size: 160 KB)
Explores range of approaches in wastewater treatment covering small household level treatment devices, middle range technologies and large intensive solutions
Best Practices in Effective Sewage Disposal, from Aniruddhe Mukerjee, Government of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal (Experiences). Water Community. Issued 13 June 2007
Available at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/cr-se-wes-21050701.pdf (PDF Size: 160 KB)
Outlines technical options and good practices from different parts of India and gives suggestions for designing institutional interventions for effective sewage management
Ecological Sanitation, from S. Janakarajan, Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS), Chennai (Examples; Experiences). Water Community. Issued 30 June 2007
Available at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr-public/cr-se-wes-05060701-public.pdf (PDF Size: 180 KB)
Details members’ experiences in promotion of ecosan across India, sharing their understanding, analysis of current problems and suggestions for scaling up the same
B. L. Kaul, Society for Popularization of Science, Jammu (response 1)
In Kashmir valley and Ladakh region, human excreta has been used as a manure for growing vegetables for centuries. The practice is common even now. In recent past the concept of Water Closet (W.C.s) was not there and people used dry latrines. While urine flowed out into the drains excreta stayed back and was removed every morning by scavengers employed privately by most house holds or by vegetable growers. The excreta were then transported by horse driven carts to the vegetable gardens where it was composted and then used as manure. The vegetable growers had also built dry latrines on the peripheries of their gardens for use by occasional passers by and by any one wanting to use them. This practice was more in use in urban areas than in rural areas. In the latter animal manure was used for the purpose.
Regarding the points raised by you I have to add:
· In Jammu and Kashmir, I am not aware of any scientific research being carried out about efficacy of the system but my experience is that the system was quite efficient and vegetable yield was excellent. The valley never felt the need of importing vegetables in the past except in winter months when the whole landscape was covered with snow. Regarding environmental impact of the system it was profound. Nematode worms especially Round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides) and Pin worms flourished especially in children and stools of most people showed presence of eggs of worms. The presence of worms in human guts resulted in anemia and other complications.
· The technique that our farmers used was simple. They dumped excreta in deep pits and covered them with raw soil. New additions of night soil were made every day in the same pits and covered with fresh layers of soil.
· In many parts of India composite animal farming and in fisheries animal urine and dung are used. By the side of a pond animals like pigs, sheep, goats and cattle are put in sheds and the waste - urine and dung - is thrown into the pond to fertilize it for rearing fish and ducks. This practice also follows in East Asian countries and China.
· Response of farmers is good in some states but farmers and consumers by and large respond negatively to the suggestion of using human night soil as a manure for obvious reasons.